Introduction

In order to facilitate the lecture of this article, the following figure identifies the different parts of a candlestick.

A brief history

The use of candlesticks is documented since the antique Greek period and the Roman Empire. Candlesticks have been produced in all periods but it is just after the restoration of monarchy (1660) that in England survived a sufficient number of pieces to allow scholars to describe in details their evolution in style and shape. During Charles II period (around 1670) candlesticks were generally made of hammered silver. They were highly ornate and with a square base, but lobed section base examples are also known (Figure 1). Plainer designs with fluted stem of square section are also documented at this time. At the end of XVII century candlesticks had lobed or octagonal (usually square with cut corners) base with gadroon decoration and lobed stem (Figure 2). The history of cast candlesticks in England formally begins with the introduction of the Britannia standard for silver wrought plate (end of XVII century) that attracted the attention of the craftsman to cast work, the softer metal not lending itself to the hammer.
.	Figure 1 - A Charles II hammered candlestick with lobed section. London 1665 Jacob Bodendick	Figure 2 - A William III candlestick. This model is usually light and with a pick filled stem. London 1698 Richard Syng

Cast candlesticks were generally produced by soldering different parts, individually obtained by casting: the base; the stem, casted in two separated part and then soldering the two halves; and, occasionally, the sconces. Nozzles, if there are, were the only part produced by hammering or by combine hammering and casting.

The evolution of the crafting technique is summarized in the following scheme, where dates should be intended as indicative and the crafting technique as the prevalent one also referring to the single item.

It must be noted that cast candlesticks were also produced, mainly as reproduction of antique items, in the Victorian era and during the XX century. Furthermore demi-figure and figure candlesticks have been produced by casting at any age.

Evolution of cast candlesticks in style and shape

Cast candlesticks were generally shorter and heavier than the hammered ones. Their size and weight varied considerably during time. From 1700 to 1735 candlestick were about 15-18 cm tall. From 1735 to 1760 they were 19-23 cm tall, to reach 14-28 cm in the late examples (around 1775 - 1780). Weight was always high, ranging from 600-900 g per pair for the shortest and to 900 - 1,350 g or more per pair for the tallest ones. Their shape had much in common with the contemporary standing cups. In the very early examples (around 1685) the surface of silver was left very plain to allow the light from the candle to be reflected. They had lobed base or square with cut corners and baluster vase-shaped stem (Figure 3). Lobed and gadroon decoration, both on stem and base, appeared around 1690, the base being square with cut corners, or occasionally round (Figure 4).
.	Figure 3 - A very early plane design cast candlestick. London 1690	Figure 4 - Cast candlestick with lobed and gadrooned decoration. London 1692 Pierre Harache

In the Queen Anne period (1702-1714) the stem can be found of octagonal shape, on round base in early examples (Figure 5), and on octagonal base from 1710 on. The latter are considered the most desirable of the period, mainly in the variant with diamond facets (Figure 6). Their surface was usually plain with the only possible addition of an engraved coat of arm.
.	Figure 5 - An early Queen Anne round base cast candlestick. London 1705 Andrew Raven	Figure 6 - A Queen Anne octagonal base and shape cast candlestick with diamond facets London 1712 and detail of stem and sconce

In the George I period (1714-1727) the shape seems to come back to that in use in the early Queen Anne period, but with heavier examples with more steps in the base. The base can be square with cut corners (Figure 7), or with cut corners ribbed at the center of each angle (Figure 8). Very seldom, at this time, can be found candlesticks with floral decoration and if so they were obtained from the original casting and then chased. From 1720 appeared candlesticks with hexagonal base (also without well). Stem and sconce are also hexagonal or, occasionally round (Figure 9).
.	Figure 7 - A typical George I cast candlestick. London 1727 John Le Sage	Figure 8 - A George I cast candlestick with cut corned ribbed base. London 1722 David Green	Figure 9 - A hexagonal base early George II cast candlestick. London 1728

From 1730 to at least 1746, a lot of candlestick had square base with cut corners ribbed at the center of each angle or with lobed base (Figure 10). Others, dating 1735, had shaped square base with stem decorated with bands and ribs. From this date on the level of decoration increased (Figure 11 and 12). In many examples the base is now round with rimmed decoration and baluster vase-shape decorated stem. Detachable nozzles seem to appear at this date.
.	Figure 10 - Cast candlestick with lobed base London 1738 Gabriel Sleath	Figure 11 - A beautifully ornate cast and chased candlestick London 1737 Charles Kandler	Figure 12 - A more decorated example (mainly acanthus leaves) with fluted stem and nozzle - London 1746 Thomas Gilpin

Rococo influence on candlestick is evident from around 1750 (Figure 13 and 14), although some examples, mainly from very important makers like Paul de Lamerie, appeared around 1740. Whirlpool, non-symmetrical design on both stem and base and a cartouche, always part of the casting, are typical features (Figure 15 and 16).
.	Figure 13 - Another more decorated example London 1750 John Cafe	Figure 14 - An example where the Rococo influence begins to be more evident - London 1748 William Mackenzie	Figure 15 - A Rococo design George II cast candlestick London 1751 Alexander Johnson	Figure 16 - A late and highly ornate example of Rococo cast candlestick - London 1762 Alexander Johnson

In the same period cast demi-figure (usually half female figure) and figure candlesticks appeared, someone on the base of very rare late XVII century examples. They had irregular shape base and were generally crafted by casting several independents parts, soldering them together and then chasing the surface to give the final touches (Figure 17).		.
.	Figure 17 - A cast demi-figure candlesticks - Dublin 1773 John Walker	.

The most common type of Georgian (George II and George III period) candlesticks date around 1750 but was produced with minor changes till 1770. They had shaped square base (usually with the well) decorated with shells at the angles (Figure 18). A less common variant had a "sexfoil" shell base (Figure 19). Occasionally appeared cast and chased examples (Figure 20).
.	Figure 18 - A typical George II cast candlestick with cut corned ribbed base - London 1755 John Cafe & John Hyatt	Figure 19 - A George II "sexfoils" base variant cast candlestick with shell decoration at the base London 1747 Edward Sieber	Figure 20 - A typical George II cast candlestick with cut corned ribbed base and cast and chased decoration London 1755 William Gould

Around 1760, the most popular design provided square base with gadrooned rim (Figure 21), some examples, dating around 1765, with swirl fluting decoration at the base of the stem, repeated on the shoulders and on the detachable nozzle (Figure 22). A pair of this type of candlesticks can reach the weight of 1,800 g.
.	Figure 21 - A square base cast candlestick with gadrooned decoration London 1763 William Cafe	Figure 22 - A square base cast candlestick with whirlpool decoration London 1765 Hannam & Carter

Examples having round base and Adam neoclassic motifs and finished applied decoration are documented at least around 1775.

A very useful picture of the evolution of shape of candlesticks from the late XVII to the end of XVIII century is done by A. O. Curle & F. S. A. Scot. The following picture has been constructed by using images reported in their work. The date given being those of the earlier hallmarks found applicable to each shape.

Hallmarks on cast candlesticks

Most XVIII century cast candlesticks are hallmarked underneath, with one mark (lion passant, leopard head, maker mark and date letter) at each corner (Figures 23 - 26). Although the underside of the candlestick was usually left very rough as a consequence of the process of casting, hallmarks are usually clear because in this position they are preserved from cleaning and rubbing.

Figure 23 - Typical hallmarks on a XVIII century cast candlestick. London 1755 William Gould	Figure 24 - Typical hallmarks on a XVIII century cast candlestick. London 1769 John Scofield

Figure 25 - Typical hallmarks on a XVIII century cast candlestick. London 1753 J. Priest	Figure 26 - Typical hallmarks on a XVIII century cast candlestick. London 1754 John Café

Early examples of Queen Anne period are hallmarked underneath with scattered hallmarks (Figure 27).		Some example of the Queen Anne period (mainly those of octagonal base with diamond facets), can be marked around the external part of the rim of the foot. In this case hallmarks may be difficult to read because they are more exposed to cleaning and rubbing. Irish examples of this shape (produced up to 1735) can be found marked on the base, usually in the well, which represent a typical Irish feature. Nozzles appeared around 1735 and should bear the lion passant (Figure 28) or the lion passant and the maker mark, but they can be occasionally unmarked.
.	Figure 27 - Scattered hallmarks struck underneath a Queen Anne period cast candlestick. London 1712	.	Figure 28 - Lion passant struck on a detachable nozzle of a cast candlestick - London 1757

The majority of candlesticks from 1700 to 1760 (ideally till 1784) have a lion passant struck on the sconces (not detachable) or a lion passant and a leopard head (Figure 29). Square base or round base candlesticks often bear grouped hallmarks, struck on the inside rim at one point (Figures 30 and 31).
.	Figure 29 - Lion passant struck on the sconce of a cast candlestick London 1738 Gabriel Sleath	Figure 30 - Grouped hallmarks struck on the internal part of the rim of a cast candlestick London 1765	Figure 31 - Grouped hallmarks struck on the internal part of the rim of a cast candlestick London 1765-7 Hannam & Carter

Fake and genuine reproduction

Cast candlesticks are difficult items to deal with as they may have been cast from an original, including hallmarks. In the case of a pair, this can be easily verified by comparing the position of the hallmarks at the base: if the position is exactly the same and the marks are of the same dimension, they are probably a fake. In this case hallmarks should be probably not clear, mainly in the ground.

As already noted, cast candlesticks have been produced, mainly as reproduction of antique items, in the Victorian era and during the XX century. Looking at these candlesticks (Figures 32 – 34) it is usually not possible to realize that they are reproduction. Only the presence of "modern" hallmarks allows to classifying them for what they are. In XX century reproduction, hallmarks are usually struck as in the original example of the XVIII century (Figures 35 and 36), while reproduction done in the Victorian period usually bears grouped hallmarks (Figures 37 and 38).

Figure 32 - Reproduction of a Queen Anne cast candlestick London 1973 J. C. Lowe	Figure 33 - Reproduction of a George I/II cast candlestick London 1977 James Robinson	Figure 34 - Reproduction of a George II cast candlestick Birmingham 1982 J. B. Chatterley & Sons Ltd.

Figure 35 – "Modern" hallmarks underneath a reproduction of a Queen Anne cast candlestick London 1973 J. C. Lowe. Note that hallmarks are correctly struck like in original model (see Figure 27)	Figure 36 – "Modern" hallmarks underneath a reproduction of a XVIII century cast candlestick London 1977 James Robinson. Note the presence of the optional Queen Elisabeth jubilee hallmarks near the date letter

Figure 37 – Grouped hallmarks underneath a Victorian reproduction of a XVIII cast candlestick London 1848 Charles and George Fox	Figure 38 – Grouped hallmarks underneath a Victorian reproduction of a XVIII cast candlestick - London 1880 Aldwinkle & Slater. Note that the reproduction was done using the Britannia standard

Some example has been cast from an earlier one and then re-hallmarked, so bearing two set of hallmarks. In this case, the ground of Georgian hallmarks, having come out in the casting, does have slight pitting and one can usually detect a later casting. However, as the underside was usually left very rough, hallmarks may be badly struck also on genuine items. The previous examples of hallmarks (Figures 23 - 26) cannot leave any doubt about the authenticity of the artifacts, but the situation that may occur can be more complex to deal with. Figure 39 shows an example of hallmarks struck on a genuine XVIII century cast candlestick that, mainly due to the roughness of the base are not well impressed and so difficult to judge by a non-experienced person. Unfortunately is just in this field that one should pay attention because cast candlesticks are among the artifacts most susceptible to forgery.

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Figure 39 - Hallmarks badly struck on a genuine XVII Century cast candlestick London 1749 John Priest

A good work on this subject has been done by J. Audy & E. Evin in their "Analysis of silver candlesticks from a casting point of view". Among the cited examples of forgery they compared the porosity of the underneath surface outside and inside the hallmarks. Figure 40 clearly shows that the entire artifact is the results of a casting, including hallmarks, being similar the ground porosity of both hallmarks and other parts of the base. This is also evident in the following example drown from another cast candlestick (Figure 41). The overall surface roughness is identical to that inside of the hallmarks (compared with genuine hallmarks in Figure 42), which indicates that they were produced by casting rather than striking. Their quality is poor, but not as bad as that observed from the previous candlestick. In the latter case some doubt can also arise from the position of the hallmarks, grouped rather than struck one at each angle of the base, as they can be found on the majority of contemporary examples.

Figure 40 - Base of the "George II era" candlestick - with positions of hallmarks (a); and the details (b and c) depicting porosity (A, B, C), machined surface D, and detailed images of forged hallmarks (3 - London City, and 2 - lion) produced by casting instead of striking (J. Audy & E. Evin, 2010)

Figure 41 - Photographs showing the set of fake hallmarks on the "George III era" candlestick, trying to convince one that the artifact was made by the silversmith Ebenezer Coker (E.C) (J. Audy & E. Evin, 2010)	Figure 42 - Genuine hallmarks struck on a XVIII century cast candlestick - London 1750 John Cafe. Note that porosity in the ground of the hallmarks is considerably less than in other parts of the base

Examples with hallmarks transposed into the base have been very occasionally documented. In this case, it should be possible to spot these by breathing on them and looking for any unnecessary seams. If the sconce is not hallmarked on a candlestick dating before 1784, one should verify if for a possible repair or consider a possible replacement.

Images Credit:

Personal collection
Daniel Bexfield Antiques (www.bexfield.co.uk)
James Baldwin Antiques's (www.jamesbaldwinantiques.com)
I.Franks The London silver Vault (www.ifranks.com)
Waxantiques (www.waxantiques.com)
OnlineGalleries (www.onlinegalleries.com)
G Cohen - Fine Antique Silver (www.gcohen.co.uk)
Sanda Lipton Antique Silver (www.antique-silver.com)

Bibliography

Peter Waldrom, 2001. The price guide of antique silver. Antiques Collector's Club, Woodbridge, Suffolk (UK).
Ian Pickford, 2003. Starting to Collect Antique Silver - Antiques Collector's Club, Woodbridge, Suffolk (UK).
Alexander O. Curle, F. S. A. Scot. 1926. Domestic candlestick from the fourteenth to the end of the eighteenth century. ADS Archaeology Data Service. http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/arch-352-1/dissemination/pdf/vol_060/60_183_218.pdf
Jaromir Audy and Emil Evin. 2010. An analysis of silver candlesticks from a casting point of view: originals, copies, forgeries. China Foundry Vol.7 No.1. http://www.foundryworld.com/uploadfile/201032959415937.pdf